Weather Services
Table of Contents
Aviation Weather Products
Aviation weather services play a critical role in ensuring the safety and efficiency of flight operations by providing pilots with timely and accurate weather information and forecasts. These services encompass a wide range of products and resources designed to help pilots make informed decisions regarding route planning, flight operations, and weather avoidance strategies. Weather briefings are one of the primary means by which pilots obtain pertinent weather information before a flight. Conducted through various channels such as telephone, radio, or online platforms, weather briefings provide pilots with updates on current weather conditions, forecasts, and significant weather phenomena along their planned route of flight. Briefers may also offer tailored advice and recommendations based on the pilot's specific needs and preferences, helping to enhance situational awareness and mitigate weather-related risks.
In addition to weather briefings, pilots have access to a wealth of weather charts and graphical products that depict various meteorological parameters and phenomena. These include surface analysis charts, which illustrate the location and movement of weather systems such as fronts, highs, and lows, as well as significant weather charts, which highlight areas of turbulence, icing, and convective activity. Upper-level charts, such as the constant pressure charts, provide insights into atmospheric conditions at different altitudes, aiding in strategic route planning and altitude selection. Flight service stations (FSS) serve as invaluable resources for pilots seeking weather information and assistance during flight planning and en route operations. Staffed by trained specialists, FSS provide weather briefings, NOTAMs (Notice to Air Missions), and other essential services to pilots via radio, telephone, and digital platforms, ensuring that pilots have access to critical weather information whenever and wherever they need it.
Furthermore, electronic flight bag (EFB) weather products have become increasingly popular among modern aviators, offering convenient access to a vast array of weather data and tools directly from the cockpit. EFBs can display real-time weather radar imagery, satellite imagery, METARs (aviation routine weather reports), TAFs (terminal aerodrome forecasts), and other weather products, enabling pilots to monitor weather conditions and make informed decisions in real-time. EFBs also often feature advanced weather planning tools, such as route optimization algorithms and weather overlays on electronic navigation charts, enhancing situational awareness and operational efficiency. With the advent of advanced technology and digital solutions, aviation weather services continue to evolve, providing pilots with the tools and resources needed to navigate safely and effectively through dynamic and ever-changing weather environments.
Aviation Altitudes
Understanding the various aviation altitudes is crucial for pilots to navigate safely and effectively through the airspace. These altitudes are measured relative to different reference points and serve different purposes in aviation. Here's a detailed list of the various aviation altitudes and their meanings, ordered to build off of each other:
Altitudes
Mean Sea Level (MSL): Mean sea level altitude refers to the height above the average sea level surface. MSL serves as a universal reference point for aviation and is used as the standard reference for measuring altitudes in flight. It provides a consistent baseline for determining aircraft altitude regardless of terrain variations.
Above Ground Level (AGL): Above ground level altitude indicates the height of an aircraft above the terrain or ground surface. AGL is calculated by subtracting the elevation of the terrain below the aircraft from the aircraft's altitude measured in MSL. AGL is particularly important during takeoff, landing, and low-level flight operations, where terrain clearance is critical.
True Altitude: True altitude refers to the actual height of an aircraft above mean sea level. True altitude accounts for variations in atmospheric pressure and provides an accurate measure of an aircraft's vertical position relative to sea level.
Pressure Altitude: Pressure altitude is the altitude indicated when the aircraft's altimeter is set to the standard atmospheric pressure setting of 29.92 inches of mercury (inHg) or 1013.2 millibars (mb). Pressure altitude is used primarily for flight planning, performance calculations, and determining aircraft performance characteristics at various altitudes.
Density Altitude: Density altitude is the pressure altitude corrected for variations in air temperature and humidity. It represents the altitude at which the air density is equivalent to standard atmospheric conditions. Density altitude is important for assessing aircraft performance, as it affects engine power, aerodynamic lift, and aircraft handling characteristics.
Indicated Altitude: Indicated altitude is the altitude displayed on the aircraft's altimeter when set to the local barometric pressure setting. It represents the height of the aircraft above the pressure level at which the altimeter was set. Indicated altitude is used for maintaining safe separation from other aircraft and for navigating within controlled airspace.
Absolute Altitude: Absolute altitude refers to the height of an aircraft above the earth's surface, regardless of any reference point. It is often used synonymously with true altitude and provides a straightforward measure of an aircraft's vertical position relative to the ground.
Figure 1 - Methods for calculating pressure altitude
Figure 2 - Density altitude conversion chart
Weather Briefings
Weather briefings are essential for pilots to gather pertinent information about current and forecasted weather conditions before embarking on a flight. Various weather products and tools for briefings are available to pilots, each serving a specific purpose and providing valuable insights into atmospheric conditions. Here's a detailed list of some of the key weather briefing terms and their meanings:
METAR (Aviation Routine Weather Report): METARs are routine weather reports issued by meteorological stations at airports worldwide. These reports provide current weather observations, including information on temperature, dew point, wind speed and direction, visibility, cloud cover, and atmospheric pressure. METARs are typically issued every hour or more frequently when significant weather changes occur. Pilots rely on METARs to assess current weather conditions at departure, destination, and alternate airports, helping them make informed decisions regarding flight planning and route selection.
TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecast): TAFs are weather forecasts issued specifically for airport terminal areas, providing information on expected weather conditions over a 24- or 30-hour period. TAFs include forecasts for significant weather elements such as wind, visibility, clouds, and precipitation. Pilots use TAFs to anticipate weather conditions at their destination airport and plan accordingly, taking into account factors such as arrival time, fuel requirements, and alternate airport options. TAFs are updated four times daily and are an essential tool for flight planning and decision-making.
METAR KJFK 291751Z 29015G22KT 260V330 10SM SCT065 04/M11 A3027 RMK AO2 SLP251 T00441106 10044 21006 58005
Figure 3 - Sample METAR of gusting and variable winds at KJFK and decoded image view
Figure 4 - Sample TAF at KPIR during convective activity with translation
Explanation: Routine TAF for Pierre, South Dakota…on the 11th day of the month, at 1130Z…valid for 24 hours from 1200Z on the 11th to 1200Z on the 12th…wind from 150° at 12 knots… visibility greater than 6 SM…broken clouds at 9,000 feet… temporarily, between 1200Z and 1400Z, visibility 5 SM in mist…from 1500Z winds from 160° at 15 knots, gusting to 25 knots visibility greater than 6 SM…clouds scattered at 4,000 feet and broken at 25,000 feet…from 0000Z wind from 140° at 12 knots…visibility greater than 6 SM…clouds broken at 8,000 feet, overcast at 15,000 feet…between 0000Z and 0400Z, there is 30 percent probability of visibility 3 SM…thunderstorm with moderate rain showers…clouds broken at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus clouds…from 0400Z…winds from 140° at 8 knots…visibility greater than 6 miles…clouds at 4,000 scattered and overcast at 8,000… temporarily between 0400Z and 0800Z…visibility 3 miles… thunderstorms with moderate rain showers…clouds overcast at 3,000 feet with cumulonimbus clouds…end of report (=).
PIREP (Pilot Weather Report): PIREPs are weather reports submitted by pilots during flight to provide real-time observations of weather conditions encountered en route. PIREPs include information on turbulence, icing, visibility, precipitation, and other atmospheric phenomena. These reports help supplement weather observations from ground-based sources and provide valuable insights into actual weather conditions aloft. Pilots use PIREPs to assess in-flight weather hazards, make informed routing decisions, and share critical weather information with other pilots and air traffic controllers. These reports are categorized based on their significance and the type of weather phenomenon observed. Two common categories of PIREPs are UA (Routine PIREP) and UUA (Urgent PIREP Update). Routine PIREPs are submitted for non-urgent weather observations and are used to supplement official weather reports and forecasts, providing real-time data on atmospheric conditions across different regions and altitudes. These reports contribute to a comprehensive understanding of weather patterns and help pilots anticipate and prepare for potential hazards during flight.
Figure 5 - Sample PIREPS in Southern California, USA
ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service): ATIS is a continuous broadcast of recorded weather information and airport-specific details transmitted on a dedicated radio frequency at controlled airports. ATIS broadcasts include essential weather elements such as wind, visibility, altimeter setting, runway conditions, and other pertinent information for arriving and departing aircraft. Pilots are required to listen to the ATIS broadcast before contacting air traffic control for clearance or approach instructions, ensuring that they have up-to-date information on current airport conditions and procedures.
AWOS (Automated Weather Observing System): AWOS is an automated weather monitoring system installed at many airports to provide continuous weather observations and reports. AWOS stations collect and disseminate real-time weather data, including temperature, dew point, wind speed and direction, visibility, and sky condition. Pilots can access AWOS reports via radio frequencies or telephone systems to obtain current weather information before departure or during flight planning. AWOS reports supplement METARs and provide additional localized weather data for pilots to assess airport conditions and make informed decisions.
Figure 6 - Picking up the ATIS/AWOS is done by tuning into the correct radio frequency for that airport's weather obersavtion service
When speaking to a telephone briefer for aviation weather briefings, pilots have access to different types of briefings tailored to their specific needs and preferences. Here are the three definitions of specific types of aviation weather briefings
Standard Briefing: A standard weather briefing is a comprehensive and detailed briefing provided by a weather briefer that covers all relevant weather information for a specific flight route or area of interest. During a standard briefing, the briefer will discuss current weather conditions, forecasts, significant weather phenomena, NOTAMs (Notice to Airmen), and any other pertinent information that may impact the flight. Pilots can request standard briefings for both pre-flight planning and in-flight updates to ensure they have the latest weather information for their intended route of flight.
Outlook Briefing: An outlook weather briefing provides a forecast of expected weather conditions beyond the standard briefing period, typically covering a timeframe of six to 24 hours into the future. Pilots may request an outlook briefing when planning for a flight that extends beyond the current forecast period or when monitoring weather trends for longer-term planning purposes. During an outlook briefing, the briefer will discuss anticipated weather trends, significant weather systems, and any potential hazards that may affect the flight during the specified timeframe.
Abbreviated Briefing: An abbreviated weather briefing is a condensed briefing provided by a weather briefer that focuses on specific weather information requested by the pilot. Abbreviated briefings are ideal for pilots who are already familiar with current weather conditions and only need updates on specific aspects of the weather, such as recent observations, forecast changes, or updates on significant weather phenomena. Pilots can request abbreviated briefings to obtain targeted information quickly and efficiently, saving time and streamlining the briefing process.
1-800-WXBRIEF
Call to speak with an aviation weather briefer (USA)
EFB Weather
ForeFlight is the leading flight planning and navigation app widely used by pilots for its comprehensive features, including advanced graphical weather capabilities and robust weather briefing tools. Programs such as ForeFlight and Garmin Pilot are known as Electronic Flight Bags. One of the key strengths of ForeFlight is its ability to provide pilots with access to a wealth of graphical weather information, allowing them to visualize and interpret weather conditions easily. The app offers a variety of weather overlays, including radar imagery, satellite imagery, graphical METARs, and NEXRAD radar, which pilots can overlay on interactive maps to track weather patterns and monitor precipitation, cloud cover, and storm activity in real-time. These graphical weather overlays provide pilots with valuable situational awareness and help them make informed decisions regarding route planning, weather avoidance, and in-flight navigation. In addition to its graphical weather capabilities, ForeFlight offers robust weather briefing tools that enable pilots to obtain comprehensive weather information quickly and efficiently. Pilots can request weather briefings directly within the app, which are delivered in a concise and easy-to-understand format. ForeFlight's weather briefings include current weather conditions, forecasts, significant weather phenomena, NOTAMs (Notice to Airmen), and other relevant information tailored to the pilot's specific route of flight. The app also allows pilots to customize their briefings by selecting specific weather elements or regions of interest, ensuring that they receive the most relevant and up-to-date weather information for their flight. With its advanced graphical weather abilities and comprehensive weather briefing tools, ForeFlight empowers pilots to make informed decisions and navigate safely through dynamic and ever-changing weather environments.
The Garmin Pilot app is another popular choice among pilots for flight planning, navigation, and weather information. Similar to ForeFlight, Garmin Pilot offers a range of features for accessing graphical weather data and obtaining comprehensive weather briefings. The app provides pilots with access to various weather overlays, including radar imagery, satellite imagery, METARs, TAFs, and graphical NOTAMs, which can be overlaid on interactive maps for easy visualization of weather conditions along the planned route of flight. Pilots can customize the weather overlays to display specific weather elements, such as precipitation, cloud cover, and wind conditions, allowing for detailed analysis of weather patterns and trends.
While both ForeFlight and Garmin Pilot offer similar graphical weather capabilities, the Garmin Pilot app distinguishes itself with additional weather-related features, such as the Garmin Pilot Weather service and SiriusXM Aviation Weather subscription integration. Garmin Pilot Weather provides pilots with access to high-resolution radar imagery, lightning data, and graphical weather forecast products, enhancing situational awareness and decision-making during flight. Additionally, Garmin Pilot integrates seamlessly with SiriusXM Aviation Weather subscription services, allowing pilots to receive real-time weather updates and enhanced weather data coverage, including satellite weather, in-flight weather radar, and weather alerts. These features make Garmin Pilot a comprehensive solution for weather information, offering pilots a wide range of tools to monitor weather conditions and plan flights safely and efficiently.
Figure 7 - ForeFlight weather services (top) and Garmin Pilot en-route radar (bottom)
Flight Service Station (FSS) & Remote Communication Outlets (RCO)
A Flight Service Station (FSS) is a vital component of the aviation infrastructure responsible for providing flight information and services to pilots before and during flight operations. Aviators can contact the universal Flight Service Station frequency at 122.2 or find a local communications outlet on their graphic charts. These stations are staffed by trained specialists who offer a range of services to assist pilots in navigating through airspace safely and efficiently. Mid-flight, pilots can contact FSS for a variety of services, including obtaining weather updates, filing flight plans, receiving NOTAMs (Notice to Airmen), and requesting assistance with en route navigation or emergency procedures. FSS personnel are knowledgeable about local airspace conditions and can provide pilots with valuable information to help them make informed decisions during flight. To contact a Flight Service Station via radio during flight, pilots can use dedicated frequencies assigned to FSS communication channels. These frequencies are standardized and widely available, allowing pilots to establish communication with FSS regardless of their location within the coverage area. Pilots can simply tune their aircraft radios to the appropriate FSS frequency and transmit their requests or inquiries to the station. FSS personnel are trained to respond promptly to radio communications from pilots and are available to provide assistance and support as needed.
In addition to radio communication, Flight Service Stations also offer remote communication outlets for pilots to access weather and flight information services from anywhere within their coverage area. These remote outlets include telephone services, internet-based services, and data-link communications, allowing pilots to obtain weather briefings, file flight plans, and receive updates on current airspace conditions without the need for direct radio communication. Pilots can access FSS services remotely using smartphones, tablets, or other electronic devices equipped with internet connectivity or data-link capabilities, providing flexibility and convenience during flight operations. To find the frequencies for Flight Service Stations, pilots can consult official aviation publications such as their graphical charts, the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) or the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD), which provide comprehensive lists of FSS frequencies organized by region and service area. Additionally, pilots can use electronic flight planning tools, navigation apps, or aviation communication databases to locate FSS frequencies quickly and easily. By utilizing these tools and resources, pilots can establish reliable communication with FSS and access valuable assistance and support for en route navigation, weather monitoring, and emergency procedures, enhancing safety and situational awareness during flight.
Figure 8 - FSS can be contacted universally at 122.2, but RCOs may have other specific frequencies
On VFR sectional charts and IFR en-route charts, pilots can locate
Flight Service Station (FSS) frequencies by referring to specific chart legends or communication sections. These charts typically include designated communication frequencies for FSS facilities, depicted as boxes or circles with frequency information labeled nearby. The frequencies are often accompanied by the name or identifier of the FSS facility, making it easy for pilots to identify the appropriate frequency for their location or intended route of flight. On VFR sectional charts, FSS frequencies may be found in the communication boxes located near airports or along airways, while on IFR charts, they may be listed in communication sections or on en route charts. Pilots can also refer to chart supplements or textual information provided with the charts for additional details on FSS frequencies and services available within specific regions or airspace sectors. By consulting VFR sectional charts and IFR charts, pilots can quickly identify FSS frequencies and establish communication with FSS to access essential flight information and support services during flight operations.
Remote Communication Outlets
Figure 9 - Santa Ana Remote Communications Outlet on VFR sectional
Figure 10 - Prescott FSS on IFR en-route low chart
AIRMETs & SIGMETs
AIRMETs (Airmen's Meteorological Information) and SIGMETs (Significant Meteorological Information) are two types of weather advisories issued by aviation authorities to alert pilots of potentially hazardous weather conditions that may impact flight safety. AIRMETs are advisory messages issued to inform pilots of weather conditions that may be hazardous to small aircraft or affect visual flight rules (VFR) operations. These advisories typically cover a wide range of weather phenomena, including moderate turbulence, icing, low-level wind shear, and instrument flight rule (IFR) conditions. AIRMETs are issued for specific geographical areas and altitudes and are designated as Sierra (for IFR conditions), Tango (for turbulence), and Zulu (for icing), allowing pilots to identify the type of weather hazard being addressed.
Figure 11 - Graphical AIRMET depiction from the Aviation Weather Center
There are several types of AIRMETs, each designated by a specific code indicating the type of hazard being addressed.
Sierra AIRMETs are issued for Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) conditions, under the criteria of widespread low ceilings (<1,000 ft.) and/or visibility below 3 miles over 50% of an area, which can significantly impact flight safety and require pilots to rely on instruments for navigation.
Tango AIRMETs are issued for moderate turbulence, which can pose a hazard to aircraft stability and passenger comfort. This type of AIRMET warns pilots to expect turbulence of a magnitude that may cause brief, occasional, or intermittent discomfort to aircraft occupants.
Zulu AIRMETs are issued for icing conditions, including moderate to severe icing that can accumulate on aircraft surfaces, impairing aerodynamic performanceThese AIRMETs provide pilots with essential information to assess the risk of encountering hazardous weather conditions and adjust their flight plans accordingly.
SIGMETs (Significant Meteorological Information) are issued for significant weather phenomena that pose a threat to all aircraft, regardless of size or operational category. These advisories are issued for severe or extreme weather events that can affect a large portion of airspace and have a significant impact on flight safety.
Convective SIGMETs are issued for severe thunderstorms, tornadoes, and other convective weather systems that can produce strong winds, large hail, heavy precipitation, and dangerous lightning. These SIGMETs provide pilots with critical information about the location, intensity, and movement of convective weather systems, allowing them to avoid hazardous weather conditions and ensure the safety of their flight operations. Additionally, SIGMETs are issued for other significant weather phenomena such as severe turbulence, icing, volcanic ash, and widespread dust storms, all of which can pose significant hazards to aircraft and require pilots to exercise caution and take appropriate evasive action.
Figure 12 - Graphical SIGMET depiction from the Aviation Weather Center
Convective outlooks provide advance guidance on the potential for severe thunderstorms and other convective weather phenomena over a specified geographic area and time period. These outlooks are issued by meteorological agencies to highlight areas where atmospheric conditions are favorable for the development of severe weather, including strong thunderstorms, tornadoes, and damaging winds. Convective outlooks typically categorize the risk of severe weather using different risk levels, ranging from marginal to high, based on the likelihood and severity of convective hazards. Pilots use convective outlooks to assess the potential for encountering hazardous weather conditions along their planned route of flight and adjust their flight plans accordingly. By monitoring AIRMETs, SIGMETs, and convective outlooks, pilots can stay informed about weather hazards and make informed decisions to ensure the safety of their flight operations.
Figure 13 - Mountain Obscuration, AIRMET Sierra
NOTAMs
NOTAMs (Notice to Air Missions) are essential notices issued by aviation authorities to inform pilots of temporary or permanent changes to aeronautical facilities, services, procedures, or hazards that could affect flight safety. These notices serve as a critical source of information for pilots, providing details about runway closures, taxiway closures, airspace restrictions, navigational aids outages, and other significant changes or hazards at airports and within airspace. NOTAMs are classified into several types based on their content and duration, each serving a specific purpose in communicating relevant information to pilots.
The types of NOTAMs include:
NOTAM-D (Distant): Issued for permanent changes to aeronautical information or facilities outside a specific area of interest.
NOTAM-L (Local): Issued for temporary changes or hazards affecting a specific airport or airspace within a defined area of interest.
NOTAM-T (Temporary): Issued for temporary changes or hazards affecting a specific airport or airspace within a defined area of interest.
FDC NOTAM (Flight Data Center): Issued for changes to flight procedures, airspace restrictions, or other regulatory information.
Pointer NOTAM: Referencing another NOTAM for additional information.
Pilots can access NOTAMs through various sources, including official NOTAM databases maintained by aviation authorities such as the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the United States or the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) globally. NOTAMs can also be found in aviation publications such as the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) or the Chart Supplement (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) for specific regions or airports. Additionally, electronic flight planning tools and navigation apps often include NOTAM databases and provide pilots with up-to-date information on relevant notices affecting their flight operations. NOTAMs are critical for flight planning and operational decision-making, as they provide pilots with essential information about changes or hazards that may impact their flight. For example, pilots rely on NOTAMs to be aware of runway closures, taxiway closures, and other airport construction activities that could affect their arrival, departure, or taxi operations. Pilots also use NOTAMs to stay informed about navigational aids outages, airspace restrictions, temporary flight restrictions (TFRs), and other hazards that could affect their route of flight or airspace utilization. By reviewing NOTAMs before each flight and incorporating relevant information into their flight planning, pilots can ensure that they have up-to-date knowledge of potential hazards and changes affecting their flight operations, enhancing safety and efficiency.
Figure 14 - Plaintext NOTAMS distributed by the FAA
Figure 15 - Decoded NOTAMs on ForeFlight
Weather Radar
Weather radar plays a crucial role in aviation by providing pilots with real-time information about precipitation patterns and severe weather phenomena along their flight route. Pilots can obtain weather radar data during flight through onboard weather radar systems installed on the aircraft or by using electronic flight bags (EFBs) equipped with weather radar applications. Weather radar systems use radio waves to detect and measure precipitation particles in the atmosphere, allowing pilots to visualize the intensity and location of precipitation, such as rain, snow, hail, or ice, in their vicinity. This information helps pilots identify areas of hazardous weather and make informed decisions to navigate around or through weather systems safely.
Weather radar works by emitting pulses of microwave energy that bounce off precipitation particles in the atmosphere and return to the radar receiver. The radar system measures the intensity of the returned signals and uses Doppler radar technology to detect the motion of precipitation particles relative to the radar site. This information is processed and displayed as a series of radar images, depicting the location, intensity, and movement of precipitation in the area surrounding the radar site. Weather radar data are often supplemented with satellite imagery, which provides a broader perspective of weather systems and atmospheric conditions, allowing pilots to make more informed decisions about weather avoidance and flight planning. By combining radar and satellite data, pilots can obtain a comprehensive picture of weather conditions along their route of flight, enabling them to navigate safely through dynamic and ever-changing weather environments.
Figure 16 - 737NG Aircraft Weather Radar Display
When assessing weather radar data in flight, pilots should be aware of the inherent delay in radar imagery, which can range from a few seconds to up to 15 minutes depending on the radar system and data processing capabilities. This delay means that the radar image displayed to the pilot may not reflect the most current weather conditions in real-time, leading to potential discrepancies between observed weather and radar depiction. Pilots should take this delay into account when using weather radar for weather avoidance and decision-making, understanding that the radar image may lag behind actual conditions and may not capture rapid changes in weather phenomena.
Figure 17 - NEXRAD reflectivity of the 2022 Pembroke Black Creek EF4 tornado
NEXRAD (Next-Generation Radar) has been a major breakthrough in aviation by providing pilots with essential weather information to enhance flight safety and efficiency. NEXRAD radar data offer high-resolution imagery and Doppler radar capabilities, allowing pilots to monitor weather conditions, detect hazardous weather phenomena, and make informed decisions during flight operations. Pilots can access NEXRAD radar data through various sources, including onboard weather radar systems, satellite-based weather services, and electronic flight bags (EFBs) equipped with aviation weather applications. NEXRAD radar data provide pilots with real-time information about precipitation intensity, movement, and type, enabling them to identify areas of convective activity, thunderstorms, and other weather hazards along their flight route. By integrating NEXRAD radar data into their flight planning and decision-making process, pilots can effectively navigate around or through weather systems, minimize exposure to turbulence, icing, and other adverse weather conditions, and ensure the safety and comfort of their passengers.
Additionally, NEXRAD radar data are often used by air traffic controllers and dispatchers to provide timely weather updates and advisories to pilots, facilitating collaborative decision-making and coordination of flight operations. Overall, NEXRAD radar is a vital tool in helping pilots mitigate weather-related risks, optimize flight routes, and maintain situational awareness in dynamic and ever-changing weather environments.
National Weather Center, Storm Prediction Center, and the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
National Weather Center (NWC) & Storm Prediction Center (SPC)
The US National Weather Center (NWC) serves as a hub for weather research, forecasting, and education, playing a critical role in advancing meteorological science and enhancing weather-related services and products. Established in Norman, Oklahoma, the NWC is a collaborative effort among several federal agencies, including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Weather Service (NWS), and the University of Oklahoma (OU). Its origins trace back to the 1960s when NOAA recognized the need for a centralized facility to coordinate weather research and training activities. In 1966, NOAA partnered with OU to establish the NWC, leveraging the university's expertise in meteorology and access to cutting-edge research facilities.
Since its inception, the US National Weather Center has served as a premier institution for weather-related research, innovation, and collaboration. Its multidisciplinary approach brings together scientists, educators, students, and professionals from various fields to address complex challenges in weather prediction, severe weather detection, climate studies, and related disciplines. The NWC houses state-of-the-art research laboratories, observation networks, computing facilities, and educational resources, providing a fertile environment for scientific inquiry and technological advancement. Through collaborative efforts with government agencies, academic institutions, and private sector partners, the NWC fosters innovation and knowledge exchange to improve weather forecasting accuracy, enhance disaster preparedness, and mitigate the impacts of extreme weather events on society and the economy. The US National Weather Center plays a vital role in supporting the mission of the National Weather Service (NWS) to protect lives and property by providing timely and accurate weather forecasts, warnings, and information. Its research and development activities contribute to the advancement of weather modeling techniques, observational technologies, and decision support tools used by forecasters to anticipate and respond to weather-related hazards. Additionally, the NWC serves as a training ground for future meteorologists and atmospheric scientists, offering educational programs, internships, and professional development opportunities to students and early-career professionals. By integrating research, education, and operational capabilities, the NWC remains at the forefront of meteorological innovation and serves as a model for collaboration and excellence in weather-related science and services.
Figure 18 - National Weather Center in Norman, Oklahoma, USA
Storm Prediction Center
The Storm Prediction Center (SPC) is a vital component of the National Weather Service (NWS) and plays a crucial role in forecasting and monitoring severe weather events, including tornadoes, severe thunderstorms, and flash floods, across the United States. Headquartered in Norman, Oklahoma, the SPC operates as a specialized forecasting unit within the NWS, focusing primarily on the prediction and assessment of convective weather hazards. Its inception was driven by the need to provide advanced warning and preparedness for severe weather phenomena, which pose significant risks to life, property, and infrastructure. Throughout its history, the Storm Prediction Center has evolved into a premier institution for severe weather forecasting, research, and analysis. Its team of meteorologists, researchers, and forecasters utilizes advanced numerical models, observational data, satellite imagery, and radar technology to assess atmospheric conditions and identify regions at risk of severe weather outbreaks. The SPC issues a variety of products and services, including convective outlooks, watches, and mesoscale discussions, to communicate the potential for severe weather hazards to emergency managers, the media, and the general public. The mission of the Storm Prediction Center encompasses several key objectives, including the timely and accurate prediction of severe weather events, the development of innovative forecasting techniques and tools, and the provision of decision support services to emergency management agencies and other stakeholders. Through ongoing research initiatives and collaboration with academic institutions, government agencies, and private sector partners, the SPC strives to advance the science of severe weather prediction and improve the effectiveness of weather-related risk mitigation strategies. In addition to its operational responsibilities, the Storm Prediction Center serves as a focal point for education and outreach efforts aimed at raising public awareness of severe weather hazards and promoting proactive preparedness measures. The SPC hosts training workshops, webinars, and educational resources to enhance the understanding of severe weather phenomena and empower individuals and communities to make informed decisions in the face of impending threats. By fulfilling its mandate to protect lives and property through advanced warning and preparedness, the Storm Prediction Center plays a critical role in safeguarding the resilience and well-being of communities vulnerable to severe weather impacts across the United States.
National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a prominent federal agency within the United States Department of Commerce, tasked with the mission of understanding and predicting changes in the Earth's environment and conserving and managing coastal and marine resources. NOAA's multifaceted portfolio encompasses a wide range of responsibilities, including weather forecasting, climate monitoring, oceanic and atmospheric research, fisheries management, and coastal zone management. With its headquarters in Silver Spring, Maryland, and numerous field offices and research facilities across the country, NOAA plays a pivotal role in safeguarding public safety, promoting environmental stewardship, and advancing scientific understanding of the Earth's systems.
One of NOAA's primary functions is to provide accurate and timely weather forecasts and warnings to protect lives, property, and livelihoods from the impacts of severe weather events. Through its National Weather Service (NWS) component, NOAA operates a network of weather observation systems, weather satellites, radar facilities, and forecast offices to monitor atmospheric conditions and issue forecasts, warnings, and advisories for various weather hazards, including hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, and winter storms. Projects such as the Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) and the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) contribute to NOAA's capabilities in weather prediction and monitoring, enabling forecasters to track and analyze weather systems with greater accuracy and precision.
NOAA's commitment to understanding and mitigating the impacts of climate change is evident through its extensive research and monitoring efforts focused on climate variability, long-term trends, and ecosystem responses. The agency operates the National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI), which archives and disseminates climate data and conducts research on climate-related topics, such as greenhouse gas concentrations, sea level rise, and temperature anomalies. NOAA's Climate Prediction Center (CPC) develops seasonal climate outlooks and provides climate monitoring and assessment services to inform decision-making and risk management strategies for various sectors, including agriculture, energy, water resources, and public health.
Figure 19 - Film shot of Antarctic peak taken on a NOAA expedition, January 1962
In addition to its weather and climate-related activities, NOAA is responsible for managing and conserving the nation's marine and coastal resources through its National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and National Ocean Service (NOS) components. NOAA conducts research on fish populations, marine ecosystems, and oceanographic phenomena to support sustainable fisheries management, habitat restoration, and marine conservation efforts. The agency also plays a critical role in coastal zone management, providing data, tools, and technical assistance to address coastal erosion, habitat degradation, and sea level rise. Projects such as the Coral Reef Conservation Program and the Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS) exemplify NOAA's commitment to protecting and preserving marine environments and resources.